Gas in cometary comae results from the sublimation of ice present just below the nucleus surface and in the ejected dust (distributed sources). In general, dust is a mixture of refractories and ice, with fractions depending, e.g. It follows that all the past estimates of the dust-to-gas ratio may be lower limits, when the largest ejected dust was assumed to be smaller than the chunks observed in 103P and 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (67P hereinafter). The dust size distribution inferred in all comets implies that the ejected dust mass is dominated by the largest ejected chunks, the mass of which could not be evaluated until the EPOXI’s flyby at comet 103P/Hartley 2 (103P hereinafter) (Kelley et al. Ground-based observations and past flybys to comets have provided estimates of the dust-to-gas mass ratio of many comets (Fulle 2004 Sykes et al. The refractory-to-ice mass ratio in comets is a key constraint to models of the origin of comets, and of the radial distribution of water and ices in the protoplanetary disc. Space vehicles, comets: general, comets: individual: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, Kuiper belt: general, protoplanetary discs 1 INTRODUCTION Therefore, comets and KBOs may have less water than CI-chondrites, as predicted by models of comet formation by the gravitational collapse of cm-sized pebbles driven by streaming instabilities in the protoplanetary disc. We review the refractory-to-ice mass ratios available for the comet nuclei visited by space missions, and for the Kuiper Belt Objects with well-defined bulk density, finding the 1-σ lower limit of 3. This makes the refractory-to-ice mass ratio inside the nucleus up to 10 times larger than the dust-to-gas mass ratio in the lost material, because the lost material is missing most of the refractories which were inside the pristine nucleus before the erosion. Such a relationship is dominated by the mass transfer from the perihelion erosion to fallout over most of the nucleus surface. You’ll receive a US$30 Amazon Gift card for 1 hour of your time while helping us build better investing tools for the individual investors like yourself.We review the complex relationship between the dust-to-gas mass ratio usually estimated in the material lost by comets, and the refractory-to-ice mass ratio inside the nucleus, which constrains the origin of comets. Simply Wall St has no position in any stocks mentioned. Note that our analysis may not factor in the latest price-sensitive company announcements or qualitative material. We aim to bring you long-term focused analysis driven by fundamental data. It does not constitute a recommendation to buy or sell any stock, and does not take account of your objectives, or your financial situation. We provide commentary based on historical data and analyst forecasts only using an unbiased methodology and our articles are not intended to be financial advice. This article by Simply Wall St is general in nature. Alternatively, email editorial-team (at). Have feedback on this article? Concerned about the content? Get in touch with us directly. If P/E ratios interest you, you may wish to see this free collection of other companies that have grown earnings strongly and trade on P/E's below 20x. Having said that, be aware Extreme Networks is showing 1 warning signin our investment analysis, you should know about. It's hard to see the share price falling strongly in the near future under these circumstances. At this stage investors feel the potential for a deterioration in earnings isn't great enough to justify a lower P/E ratio. We've established that Extreme Networks maintains its high P/E on the strength of its forecast growth being higher than the wider market, as expected. Apparently shareholders aren't keen to offload something that is potentially eyeing a more prosperous future. With this information, we can see why Extreme Networks is trading at such a high P/E compared to the market. Meanwhile, the rest of the market is forecast to only expand by 8.4%, which is noticeably less attractive. Turning to the outlook, the next year should generate growth of 153% as estimated by the seven analysts watching the company. Therefore, it's fair to say that earnings growth has been inconsistent recently for the company. Although, its longer-term performance hasn't been as strong with three-year EPS growth being relatively non-existent overall. Retrospectively, the last year delivered an exceptional 82% gain to the company's bottom line. There's an inherent assumption that a company should far outperform the market for P/E ratios like Extreme Networks' to be considered reasonable. What Are Growth Metrics Telling Us About The High P/E? Keen to find out how analysts think Extreme Networks' future stacks up against the industry? In that case, our free report is a great place to start.
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